Science & Philosophy: Condensation to Cosh
Condors - Return to the wild
Condors are New World vultures that are among the largest of flying birds. There are only two species, the Andean condor (Vultur gryphus) and the critically endangered California condor (Gymnogyps californianus). They are related to the smaller vultures of the Americas, including the king vulture (Sarcoramphus papa) and turkey vulture (Cathartes aura), which also belong to family Cathartidae. In t…
Confucianism - Confucius, Warring States Confucianism, Han Confucianism, Neo-confucianism, Modern Confucianism, Bibliography
The concepts the learners used were appropriated from the pre-Confucian discourse of a broad class of warriors across the North China Plain. In this discourse power and virtue ideally were one (de). The worlds of men and of spirits (gui or shen) were separate but communication between the two was possible, and so was mutual intervention. Shamans and oracles were the agents of communication, while …
Congenital
The term congenital is used to describe a condition or defect that exists at birth. Congenital disorders are inborn. They are present in the developing fetus. Sickle cell disease, Down syndrome, and congenital rubella syndrome are three examples of congenital conditions in humans. Congenital disorders result from abnormalities in the fetus's genetic inheritance, conditions in the fetal envi…
Congruence (triangle)
Two triangles are congruent if they are alike in every geometric respect except, perhaps, one. That one possible exception is in the triangle's "handedness." There are only six parts of a triangle that can be seen and measured: the three angles and the three sides. The six features of a triangle are all involved with congruence. If triangle ABC is congruent to triangle DEF, th…
Conic Sections
A conic section is the plane curve formed by the intersection of a plane and a right-circular, two-napped cone. Such a cone is shown in Figure 1. The cone is the surface formed by all the lines passing through a circle and a point. The point must lie on a line, called the "axis," which is perpendicular to the plane of the circle at the circle's center. The point is called the …
Conifer
Conifer (common name for phylum Pinophyta) is a type of tree that thrives in temperate and boreal climates. Characterized by seed-bearing cones, conifers typically have narrow, needle-like leaves covered with a waxy cuticle, and straight trunks with horizontal branches. These trees are usually evergreen, meaning they do not shed their leaves all at once, and can photosynthesize continually. There …
Connective Tissue - Overview Of Connective Tissue Matrix, Types Of Connective Tissue, Connective Tissue Composed Of Ground Substance And Protein Fibers - General structure of connective tissue, Mostly fluid connective tissue
Connective tissue is found throughout the body and includes fat, cartilage, bone, and blood. The main functions of the different types of connective tissue include providing support, filling in spaces between organs, protecting organs, and aiding in the transport of materials around the body. Connective tissue is composed of living cells and protein fibers suspended in a gel-like material called m…
Consciousness - Chinese Thought - Cosmological Consciousness, Consciousness Of Human Self, Political Consciousness, Conclusion, Bibliography
Human consciousness in Chinese thought may be seen in three layers, each of which requires the other two for both development and understanding. While these three layers of consciousness are constructed for analytical purposes, in reality they are interconnected. Psychologically, they represent different frames of reference, but they are also different dimensions of the same individual and/or coll…
Consciousness - Overview - Consciousness In Modern Philosophy, The Unconscious, Contemporary Philosophy Of Mind, Historical Self-consciousness
Consciousness has three distinct meanings in the modern world. First it refers to immediate subjective experience. Second, it is the source of immediate and certain knowledge of mental states. For example, if I am in pain, I am conscious of pain and certain of this knowledge of my mental state. Third, it is self-consciousness, a concept of the self that answers the question "Who am I"…
Conservation - Conservationist Movement Founded, Global Environmental Efforts
Conservation is the philosophy that natural resources should be used cautiously and rationally so that they will remain available for future generations of people. American conservationist thought has evolved from its inception in the mid 1850s, when naturalists, businesspeople and statesmen alike foresaw environmental, economic and social peril in the unregulated use and abuse of North America&#x…
Conservatism - Origins Of Conservatism: Britain, France, And Germany, The Challenge Of The Modern, Conservatism: Civil And Cultural
Conservatism lends itself to misunderstanding because its political designation is easily confused with popular usage. To be conservative in the sense of preferring the familiar to the unfamiliar is a common form of behavior. Since this attitude toward life is universal, it issues from no necessary political commitment. For any person, even the most bohemian, not to develop a settled habit or a li…
Consilience - Consilience In Modern Science
"Consilience of inductions" is a phrase that was invented by the nineteenth-century English historian and philosopher of science William Whewell (1794–1866; pronounced "Hule"), and introduced in his Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences (1840). Whewell was trying to capture the notion of what Isaac Newton (1642–1727) had labeled a "true cause,"…
Constellation
A constellation is a group of stars that form a long-recognized pattern in the sky. The names of many constellations are Greek in origin and are related to ancient mythology. The stars that make up a constellation may be at very different distances from the earth and from one another. The pattern is one that we as humans choose to see and has no physical significance. Novice stargazers are often t…
Constitutionalism - Ancient Conceptions, Medieval Conceptions, Early Modern Conceptions, Modern Conceptions, Islamic Conceptions, Chinese Conception
Constitutionalism is commonplace in modern political discourse in the West and beyond, yet it remains an elusive concept. Some have considered it impossible (and unnecessary) to give a definition of it. Nonetheless, one can discern several common features of the concept: the rule of law, not of men; limitations of political authority; the protection of civic rights and liberties; and rule based on…
Constructions
Much of Euclidean geometry is based on two geometric constructions: the drawing of circles and the drawing of straight lines. To draw a circle with a compass, one needs to know the location of the center and some one point on the circle. To draw a line segment with a straightedge, one needs to know the location of its two end points. To extend a segment, one must know the location of it or a piece…
Contaminated Soil - Fate Of Soil Contaminants, Superfund And Other Legislation, Soil Cleanup, Cleanup Costs And Standards
The presence of toxic and radioactive chemicals in soil at concentrations above trace levels poses potential risks to human health and ecological integrity. Soil can be contaminated by many human actions, including discharge of solid or liquid materials to the soil surface, pesticide and fertilizer application, subsurface release from buried tanks, pipes, or landfills, and deposition of atmospheri…
Contamination - Toxic Chemicals, Some Chemicals Are Ubiquitous In The Environment
Contamination generally refers to the occurrence of some substance in the environment. The contaminant may be present in a larger concentration than normally occurs in the ambient environment. However, contamination is only said to occur when the concentration is smaller than that at which measurable biological or ecological damage can be demonstrated. Contamination is different from pollution, wh…
Contemporary Genetics - Eugenics And The Ethical Issues Of Selective Breeding (1900–1945), Dna, Genomics, And The New Ethical Dilemmas
One of the most startling and disturbing revelations from the Nuremburg Trials following World War II was the extent of the atrocities committed by the Nazi government in the name of genetics. Massive sterilizations and euthanasia programs for those deemed genetically unfit ("lives not worth living" in Nazi phraseology) had raised ethical issues about the use and abuse of science an…
Continent - Crusts Compared, Continental Margins, Crustal Origins, Growing Pains, Primeval Continents - Structure of a continent
A continent is a large land mass and its surrounding shallow continental shelf. Both are composed of felsic crust. Continents, as by-products of plate tectonic activity, have grown to cover about one-third of Earth's surface over the last four billion years. Continents are unique to Earth, as plate tectonics does not occur on the other planets of our solar system. Continent interiors consis…
Continental Drift - History Of Wegener's Theory, Evidence Of The Theory, Formation Of Pangaea, Pangaea Splits
The relative movement of the continents is explained by modern theories of plate tectonics. The relative movement of continents is explained by the movement Diagram illustrating formation of continental margins. (a) Materials in Earth's mantle move up (often through volcanos) expanding the continental crust and causing rifting. (b) As it divides, the continental crust thins, and contin…
Continental Philosophy - Wittgenstein And Analytic Philosophy, Freud And The Unconscious, Phenomenology Of Consciousness, Heidegger And The Phenomenology Of Being
The term continental philosophy was coined by English-speaking analytic philosophers in Great Britain and the United States shortly after World War II. Since then, the term has been used primarily by English-speaking philosophers but not by western European philosophers, who see no need to call themselves "continental." The differences between analytic and continental philosophy are …
Continental Shelf
The continental shelf is a gently sloping and relatively flat extension of a continent that is covered by the oceans. Seaward, the shelf ends abruptly at the shelf break, the boundary that separates the shelf from the continental slope. The shelf occupies only 7% of the total ocean floor. The average slope of the shelf is about 10 ft per mi (1.9 m per km). That is, for every one kilometer of dista…
Continuity
The continuity of space or time, considered by Zeno and others, is represented in mathematics by the continuity of points on a line. As late as the seventeenth century, mathematicians continued to believe, as the ancient Greeks had, that this continuity of points was a simple result of density, meaning that between any two points, no matter how close together, there is always another. This is true…
Contour Plowing
One of the earliest methods of conservation tillage came to be known as contour plowing, or "plowing on the contour." Tilling the soil along the gentle slopes of a piece Contour rice farming in Arkansas. Photograph by Paul Logsdon. Phototake NYC. Reproduced by permission. of cropland, instead of up and down the gradient, prevents fertile topsoil from being carried downhill by fl…
Convection
Convection is the vertical transfer of mass, heat, or other properties in a fluid or substance that undergoes fluid-like dynamics. Convection takes place in the atmosphere, in the oceans, and in Earth's molten subcrustal asthenosphere. Convective currents of air in the atmosphere are referred to as updrafts and downdrafts. In addition to heat transfer, convention can be driven by other prop…
Coordination Compound
A coordination compound is formed when groups of atoms, ions, or molecules chemically bond with each other by donating and accepting pairs of electrons. Groups donating electron pairs are called ligands. They are usually Lewis bases. Groups accepting electron pairs are often transition metal cations. Figure 1. Formation and representations of a coordinate-covalent bond. Illustration by Ha…
Copepods - Characteristics Of Free-living Copepods, The Parasites, Place In The Food Chain, Order Calanoida
Copepods are pale or translucent crustaceans, measuring between 0.04 mm to several millimeters long. They have adapted to many different habitats; while they usually live in salt water, copepods can live in lakes and ponds as well. Furthermore, they have different modes of locomotion: some can swim purposefully but others are planktonic, floating with the current. Scientists generally A copep…
Copper - History Of Copper, Making Pure Copper, Uses Of Copper, Compounds Of Copper
Copper is the metallic chemical element of atomic number 29, symbol Cu, atomic weight 63.55, specific gravity 8.96, melting point 1,985°F (1,085°C), and boiling point 4,645.4°F (2,563°C). It consists of two stable isotopes, of mass numbers 63 (69.1%) and 65 (30.9%). Copper is one of only two metals that are colored, Copper is reddish brown, while gold is...gold—a…
Cork
Cork is the outer, regenerative bark of the cork oak tree, Quercus suber, family Fagaceae. Unlike other oak species, the cork oak is an evergreen tree and dates from the Oligocene epoch of the Tertiary period. The oldest cork fossil, dating 10 million years old, was found in Portugal and is identical to modern cork. Today cork oak trees grow exclusively around the edge of the Mediterranean, primar…
Corm
A corm is a modified, upright, swollen, underground stem base of a herbaceous plant. Corms serve as a perennating organ, storing energy and producing new shoots and flowering stems from one or more buds located in the axils of the scale–like leaves of the previous year. Corms differ from superficially similar bulbs in that their leaves are thin rather than fleshy, and they are entirely comp…
Cormorants
Cormorants or shags are long-necked, generally black or dark grey, aquatic birds in the family Phalacrocoracidae. These birds occur in most temperate and tropical marine coasts, and on many large lakes. There are 29 species of cormorants with fewer species occurring at higher latitudes. The plumage of cormorants is not completely waterproof, since these birds lack an oil gland for preening, so the…
Corn (Maize)
According to Native American legends of the American Southwest, the Indian people have occupied four (some say five) worlds since the creation of man. The present world is the fourth world and each of the three former worlds lies under the one succeeding it. Some legends say that maize, or corn as Europeans came to call it, was already present in the first world, at the time the first humans were …
Coronal Ejections and Magnetic Storms
Coronal mass ejections (CMEs) are explosive and violent eruptions of charged, magnetic field-inducing particles and gas (plasma) from the Sun's outer coronal layer. The ejection from the Sun's corona can be massive (e.g., estimates of CME mass often range in the billions of tons. Ejections propel particles in specific directions, some directly crossing Earth's orbital position…
Correlation (Mathematics)
Correlation refers to the degree of correspondence or relationship between two variables. Correlated variables tend to change together. If one variable gets larger, the other one systematically becomes either larger or smaller. For example, we would expect to find such a relationship between scores on an arithmetic test taken three months apart. We could expect high scores on the first test to pre…
Corrosion
Corrosion is the deterioration of metals and other materials by chemical reaction. Corrosion of metals is the most common type of corrosion and is a process involving an exchange of electrons between two substances, one of them being the metal. In this process, the metal usually loses electrons, becoming oxidized, while the other substance gains electrons, becoming reduced. For this reason, corros…
Corruption - Corruption, Civic Republicanism, And Republican Historiography, Political Corruption, Other Contexts, Conclusion, Bibliography
Consider the first sentence of Jean-Jacques Rousseau's (1712–1778) Discours sur les arts et sciences (Discourse on the arts and sciences, 1750): "Has the restoration of the sciences and arts contributed to the purification of mores, or their corruption?" Corruption denotes deterioration, a qualitative decline from an original (absolutely or relatively) natural or pristi…