Science & Philosophy: Boolean algebra to Calcium Propionate
Boric Acid
Boric acid has a wide variety of industrial applications. It is used in the manufacture of heat-resistant borosilicate glass and other ceramics, such as crockery, porcelains, enamels, and artificial gemstones. It also used in waterproofing wood and fireproofing textiles. It also finds application as an insecticide for cockroaches and black carpet beetles and as an fungicide on citrus fruits. Its u…
Botany - History of botany
Botany is the study of plants. It is one of the major fields of biology, together with zoology (the study of animals) and microbiology (the study of bacteria and viruses). Specializations within the field of botany include the study of mosses, algae, lichens, ferns, and fungi. Other specialties in botany include plant physiology, the study of the vital processes of plants, such as photosynthesis, …
Bowen's Reaction Series
As hot magma cools, it undergoes specific reactions. Bowen's reaction series describes the temperature Bowen's reaction series depicts mineral formation in a cooling magma. The discontinuous side depicts mineral formation at decreasing temperatures. The continuous side depicts a solid solution series. As the magma cools there is a trend towards molecular complexity. As the tempe…
Bowerbirds
The 18 species of bowerbirds are unique in that the males build and decorate a bower, a structure of sticks or grass on the ground, for the purpose of attracting and courting females. Members of the bowerbird family (Ptilonorhynchidae) are found in Australia and New Guinea, and are related to lyrebirds and birds of paradise. Most bowerbirds are about the size of a blue jay or grackle, and as a gro…
Bowfin
The bowfin is a bony fish (Amia calva, family Amiidae) found in eastern North America. It is a relic species—the sole living representative of the order Amiiformes, which first appeared in the Triassic period more than 200 million years ago. Members of this family were common in Europe and Asia, as well as North America, during the Cretaceous and the early part of the Cenozoic. Fossil speci…
Boxfish
Boxfish, also called trunkfish or cowfish, are a small group of shallow-water, marine fish in the family Ostraciontidae (order Tetraodontiformes). The family includes the genera Lactoria, Ostracion, and Tetrosomus and is closely related to the poisonous puffer fish of the family Tetraodontidae. To avoid confusion with these poisonous relatives, some people avoid eating boxfish despite their being …
Brachiopods
Brachiopods, or lampshells, are a phylum of small marine animals with a two-valved shell that, at first glance, resemble bivalved mollusks such as clams. The resemblance, however, is quite superficial. The orientation of the shells of brachiopods is very different from that of bivalved mollusks, and brachiopods have two additional structures virtually unique to them, the lophophore (a ciliated fee…
Brackish
Brackish refers to water with a salinity intermediate to that of fresh water and sea water (the latter has a salt concentration of about 3.5%, or 35 parts per thousand). Brackish waters originate by the mixing of sea water and freshwater, and are most common near the coasts of the oceans. Brackish waters can occur as enclosed systems such as lakes and ponds that receive occasional inputs of oceani…
Brain - Invertebrate Brain, Vertebrate Brain, Human Brain, The Brain Stem, The Diencephalon, The Cerebrum - The cerebellum
The brain is a mass of nerve tissue located in an animal's head that controls the body's functions. In simple animals, the brain functions like a switchboard picking up signals from sense organs and passing information to muscles. The brain is also responsible for a variety of involuntary behavior, including keeping the heart beating, and maintaining blood pressure and temperature. I…
Bridges - Forces Acting On A Bridge, Dynamic Loads, Model Testing, Types Of Bridges, Cantilever Bridges
Bridges are structures that join two otherwise inaccessible points of land, such as the two shores of a river or lake, or the two sides of a canyon or deep gully. Bridges are designed to carry railroad cars, motor vehicle traffic, or foot travel by pedestrians and/or animals, or to support pipes, troughs, or other conduits used for the movement of goods and materials, such as an oil pipeline or a …
Bristletails
Bristletails are about 300-400 species of small, elongate, terrestrial insects in the order Thysanura. Bristletails have an ancient evolutionary lineage, and they are believed to be relatively primitive, that is, similar in form and function to the most early evolved insects. Bristletails have a simple metamorphosis, with three life-history stages: egg, nymph, and adult. Both the nymphal and adult…
Brittle Star
Brittle stars are starfishlike echinoderms (phylum Echinodermata) in the family Ophiodermatidae, whose star-shaped bodies are radially symmetrical and are supported by a hard endoskeleton made of calcium salts. Brittle stars are closely related to basket stars, and more distantly related to starfish, sand dollars, and sea urchins. Brittle stars are named for the ease by which their arms fall off w…
Bromeliad Family (Bromeliaceae)
The pineapple family (Bromeliaceae) consists of about 1,500 species of flowering plants. Most species are medium-sized herbs with tightly packed, thick, stiff, spiralling leaves that usually have spiny margins. Some species are semi-woody, and a few rare ones, such as Puya raimondii, are trees that can reach 33 ft (10 m) in height. Most species of bromeliads are epiphytes in rainforests, while oth…
Bronchitis
Bronchitis is the inflammation of the bronchi and is a commonly seen winter condition. The bronchi (the air passages leading into the lungs) are formed by the division of the trachea (the main windpipe leading from the larynx [Adam's apple] down through the neck into the chest). The trachea branches left and right into the bronchi which branch to supply lung lobe with the means for air to p…
Brown Dwarf
A brown dwarf is a pseudostar; a body of gas not massive enough for the gravitational pressure in its core to ignite the hydrogen-fusion reaction that powers true stars. The name "brown dwarf" is a play on the name of the smallest class of true stars, "red dwarf," but while red dwarfs are actually red, brown dwarfs are not brown, but purple or magenta. Objects ranging i…
Brownian Motion
Brownian motion is the constant but irregular zigzag motion of small colloidal particles such as smoke, soot, dust, or pollen that can be seen quite clearly through a microscope. In 1827, Robert Brown, a Scottish botanist, prepared a slide by adding a drop of water to pollen grains. As he watched the tiny particles of pollen under his microscope, Brown noticed that they were constantly jiggling ab…
Bryophyte - Classification, Characteristics, And Habitats Of Bryophytes, Hepatophyta (division Liverworts), Hornworts (division Anthocerophyta)
Bryophytes include the mosses, liverworts, and hornworts. Bryophytes are the simplest of plants (excluding the algae, which are not considered plants by most botanists). Bryophytes are small, seldom exceeding 6-8 in (15-20 cm) in height, and usually much smaller. They are attached to the substrate (ground, rock, or bark) by rhizoids, which are one or a few-celled, root-like threads that serve only…
Buckminsterfullerene - Production Of Fullerenes, Uses
As recently as 1984, carbon was thought to exist in only two solid forms. There was graphite, in which the carbon atoms arranged themselves as layered sheets of hexagonally bonded atoms, and there was diamond, in which the carbon atoms formed octahedral structures in which each carbon atom had four nearest neighbors. When compressed to 70% of its initial volume, the buckminsterfullerene is expecte…
Buckthorn
Buckthorns are various species of shrubs and small trees in the family Rhamnaceae, a mostly tropical and subtropical family of about 600 species. Most of the buckthorns are in the genus Rhamnus. Buckthorns have a few economic applications, although none of these are very important. A dye known as sap green is made from the fruits of the European buckthorn (Rhamnus cathartica). Another pigment know…
Buckwheat
Buckwheat, Fagopyrum esculentum, is not really a wheat at all—it belongs to the family Polygonaceae, and hence is a dicotyledonous plant, not a monocotyledonous species. However, the starchy seeds of buckwheat are utilized in much the same way as the cereal grains of cultivated grasses, such as wheat (Triticum aestivum). The seeds of buckwheat can be used directly as poultry or animal feed.…
Buddhism - The Buddha And The Fundamental Doctrines Of Buddhism, Formation Of Theravada Buddhism, Mahayana Buddhist Doctrines And Traditions
Buddhism has been known in the West since at least the time of Alexander the Great and possibly influenced some forms of Greek philosophy, the Gnostics, and early Christians. In modern times, as a result initially of immigration of Asians to Western countries in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries and increasingly because of interest among Westerners themselves, Buddhism can no longer be regard…
Buffer - Weak Acid Buffers, Weak Base Buffers, Some Important Buffers - How buffers work
In chemistry, a buffer is a system, usually an aqueous (water) solution, that resists having its pH changed when an acid or a base is added to it. Normally, the addition of acid to a solution will lower its pH and the addition of a base will raise its pH. If the solution is a buffer, however, its pH will be changed to a much lesser extent than would be expected from the amounts of acid or base tha…
Building Design/Architecture - Prehistory, Medieval Architecture—romanesque And Gothic, The Renaissance And The Baroque, The Industrial Revolution—new Materials - Classical architecture
Architects design buildings, but architecture is more than just building design and more than just art on a massive scale. Architecture is about light and space. It is about stimulating emotions in the people who see and inhabit the structure. Architecture creates an environment, whether it is the uplifted spirituality of the Chartres Cathedral, the drama and anticipation of the Schauspielhaus aud…
Bulbuls
Bulbuls are about 120 species of medium-sized, perching birds, distributed among 15 genera, and making up the family Pyncnontidae. The most diverse genus is Pycnonotus, with about 50 species. Bulbuls are mostly tropical and subtropical birds, occurring in Africa, Asia, and Southeast Asia. Some relatively northern species are migratory, but most species of bulbuls are local birds. Bulbuls have rath…
Bunsen Burner
Named after the German chemist Robert Wilhelm Bunsen, who contributed to its development, the Bunsen burner was already known to Michael Faraday, who may have created the first design. The idea behind the Bunsen burner is to reduce the considerable loss in heat energy typical in ordinary gas burners. This reduction of energy waste is accomplished by using a mixture of gas and air, the optimal prop…
Principle of Buoyancy - bladders Boats and blimps
Fluids such as water or air exert pressure in all directions and the amount of pressure depends on the depth of the fluid. The pressure on the bottom of an object immersed in a fluid will be greater than the pressure on the top of the object. The imbalance of pressure acting on the object creates an upward force called the buoyant force. If the buoyant force is greater than the weight of the objec…
Bureaucracy - The Practical Form Of Social Organization Later Known As Bureaucracy, Max Weber And The Idea Of Bureaucracy
The idea of bureaucracy formally begins with Max Weber (1864–1920); indeed, the idea of bureaucracy ends with Weber as well. Prior to Weber's explication of the "ideal type" of rational, efficient organization of public or private business as a bureaucracy, the idea was simply a commonsense, practical method for the organization of economic or government action. While t…
Buret
A buret (also spelled burette) is a long glass tube open at both ends, that is used to measure out precise volumes of liquids or gases. Most burets are about 0.04 in (1 mm) in diameter and 30 in (75 cm) long. The bottom of a buret is tapered so that its diameter is only about 0.1 mm in diameter. Burets are most commonly designed to hold volumes of 1 ml or less. Fluid is dispensed form a buret thro…
Burn
A burn is damage to the skin. Depending on the type of and severity of the burn, skin may be only superficially damaged, or damage may extend deep within the layers of the skin. Burns can be caused by extreme heat, extreme cold, chemicals, electricity, or radiant energy (i.e., ultraviolet rays from the sun or an artificial source, and x rays). The degree of damage of a burn can be classified in tw…
Bushido - The Warrior Governments Of Japan, From War To Peace, Modern Legacy, Precepts Of The Fighting Man (kamakura, Muromachi, Azuchi-momoyama Periods, 1185–1600)
Literally translated as "way of the warrior," Bushido evolved into a clearly defined ethical system of the bushi, or warrior class of Japan, during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries; the term first appeared in the Kōyō gunkan in about 1625. In his 1899 Bushido: The Soul of Japan, Nitobe Inazō, the first to articulate the concept in English, enumerated seven e…
Bustards - Species of bustards, Bustards and humans
Bustards are 22 species of tall birds that make up the family Otidae. Bustards occur in relatively open habitats in Africa, central and southern Europe and Asia, Southeast Asia, and Australia. Most species, however, are African. Bustards are large birds, with species ranging in body length from 14.5-52 in (37-132 cm), and in weight from 1-48 lbs (0.6-22 kg). Bustards have a stocky body, a long nec…
Buttercup
Buttercups and crowfoots are about 275 species of plants in the genus Ranunculus, family Ranunculaceae. Buttercups mostly occur in cool and temperate regions of both hemispheres of the world, including mountains in tropical latitudes. Buttercups are annual or perennial, and they are herbaceous plants, dying back to the ground surface before the winter. The leaves of terrestrial species are simple …
Butterfly Fish
Butterfly fish (family Chaetodontidae) are some of the most colorful and varied fish of the oceans, the majority of which live on or close to coral reefs. Most species measure from 5-9.5 in (13-24 cm) in length and have deep, flattened bodies that are frequently adorned by extended fins. In some species these may form a large arc over the body. In addition to refinements in the body shape, the col…
Butyl Group - Butyl compounds, Butyl alcohols
bonds to other atoms via an end carbon atom, while the sec-butyl group bonds via an "inner" carbon atom. The boiling points of the butyl alcohols decrease regularly in moving down the above list, from 244°F (118°C) for n-butyl alcohol to 226°F (108°C) for isobutyl alcohol to 212°F (100°C) for sec-butyl alcohol to 180°F (82°C) fo…
Butylated Hydroxyanisole
Butylated hydroxyanisole is a food additive much more widely known by its abbreviation, BHA. BHA is an aromatic organic compound with the chemical names of 2- and 3-tert-butyl-4-methoxyphenol. It can exist in either of the two isomeric forms or as a mixture of the two isomers. In its pure form, BHA is a waxy white or pale yellow solid with a melting point of 118.4–131°F (48–55…
Butylated Hydroxytoluene
Butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) is a derivative of cresol, an aromatic organic compound in which two additional hydrogen atoms in the benzene ring are replaced by tertiary butyl groups. Its technical name is 2,6-di-tert-butyl-p-cresol. In its pure form BHT is a white crystalline solid with a melting point of 158°F (70°C) and a boiling point of 509°F (265°C). It is normal…
Buzzards - Species Of Buzzards, Buzzards And Humans
The true buzzards are diurnal birds of prey in the genus Buteo, sub-family Buteonidae, family Accipitridae. In North America, buzzards are also commonly known as hawks, although other genera in the family Accipitridae are also given this common name, for example, the Accipiter hawks. There are 25 species of buzzards. Buzzards are in the order Falconiformes, which also includes other types of hawks…
CAD/CAM/CIM
CAD/CAM is an acronym for computer-aided design and computer-aided manufacturing. The use of A CAD system used for Boeing airplanes. © Ed Kashi/Phototake NYC. Reproduced by permission. computers in design and manufacturing applications makes it possible to remove much of the tedium and manual labor involved. For example, the many design specifications, blueprints, material lists, an…
Caddisflies
North America's streams, rivers, and lakes are home to more than 1,200 different species of caddisflies, which are aquatic insects in the order Trichoptera. Adaptations to different water conditions and food types allow this group of insects to populate a variety of habitats in America's waters. Caddisflies are best known and most easily identified in their larval stages. Most caddis…
Caecilians
Caecilians are long, worm-like legless amphibians in the order Gymnophiona (sometimes known as Apoda, meaning without legs). There are 163 species of caecilians, in 35 genera. Little is known about these animals, and few species have common names. Most of the caecilians are tropical or sub-tropical, and occur in Central and South America, Africa, and south and southeast Asia. Caecilians grow up to…
Calcium
Calcium is a chemical element, a member of the alkaline-earth metals group, represented by the atomic symbol Ca and the atomic number 20. It has an atomic weight of 40.08. In its pure form, calcium is a silvery-white metal, although it is never found in this free state naturally. It is, however, one of the most abundant substances on Earth, comprising approximately 3.64% of the earth's crus…
Calcium Carbonate
Calcium carbonate has two major crystalline formstwo different geometric arrangements of the calcium ions and carbonate ions that make up the compound. These two forms are called aragonite and calcite. All calcium carbonate minerals are conglomerations of various-sized crystals of these two forms, packed together in different ways and containing various impurities. The large, transparent crystals …
Calcium Oxide
Calcium oxide (CaO), more commonly known as lime or quick lime, has been studied by scholars as far back as the pre-Christian era. In his book Historia Naturalis, for example, Pliny the Elder discussed the preparation, properties, and uses of lime. Probably the first scientific paper on the substance was Dr. Joseph Black's "Experiments Upon Magnesia, Alba, Quick-lime, and Some Other …
Calcium Propionate
Calcium propionate is used as a food preservative in breads and other baked goods because of its ability to inhibit the growth of molds and other microorganisms. It is not toxic to these organisms, but does prevent them from reproducing and posing a health risk to humans. Propionic acid occurs naturally in some foods and acts as a preservative in those foods. Some types of cheese, for example, con…