Thermodynamics

Benjamin Thompson, Count von Rumford (1753-1814) recognized from observing the boring of cannon that the work (or mechanical energy) involved in the boring process was being converted to heat by friction, causing the temperature of the cannon to rise. With the experiments of James Joule (1818-1889), it was recognized that heat is a form of energy that is transferred from one object to another, and that work can be converted to heat without limit. However, the opposite is found not to be true: that is, there are limiting factors in the conversion of heat to work. The research of Sadi Carnot (1796-1832), of Lord Kelvin (1824-1907), and of Rudolph Clausius (1822-1888), among others, has led to an understanding of these limitations.